Week 1 (1/24 - 2/1)
Biology Mr. Mark James : Teacher
Current Topic of Study, Assignments, Activities & Homework: Quizzes Daily !
1/24/08: Introduction to teacher and class topics.
* Will make seating assignments, distribute textbooks, send home student information sheet, classroom rules form, give out North Carolina Standard Course of Study guidelines for Biology.
* Go over expectations and goals. _____ Homework: Read Ch. 1 (page 3 10) Do outline !! Turn in on Test Day! Example: I. Red Heading (The Science of Biology): then write several sentences describing what is the science of biology. This is your main topic.
a. blue headings (Biologist study the interactions of life): then write several sentences describing that heading. This is minor topic.
1/25/08: Begin Ch. 1: What is Biology, what are fields of study in biology, what is the scientific method of doing research, what are tools of biology, what is the metric system of measurement.
_____ Homework: Read Ch. 1 (page 11 23) Do Outline ! _____ Do Vocabulary for Ch. 1 (at the end of the chapter) Study what was presented today !!!!!!!!
Test on Ch. 1 will be Tuesday 1/29/08 BE READY !!!!
Biology mean Study of living things.
Characteristics of living things: 1. living things are organized
2. living things reproduce and make more like living things 3. living things change by growth and development
4. living things adjust to their surroundings
5. living things adapt and evolve
Species - a group of organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring. Biotic - the living part of the environment (frogs, people, bees, earthworms ect.)
Abiotic -the non-living part of the environment (air, water, soil, temperature, ect.) Be familiar with a stimulus / response concept.
_____ Learned: Scientific method is composed of the following steps:
| 1. Identify the problem.
2. Research the problem so as to become informed.
3. Formulate a Hypothesis "educated guess"
4. Experiment to test the hypothesis
5. Make observations and collect data from experiment.
6. Draw conclusion
7. Report findings in Journal or Paper
8. Repeat experiment to verify results. |
Hypothesis may become Theory and theory may become Law.
Know the difference between Quantitative research and Descriptive research.
What are Ethics?
1/28/08 Continue discussion of Ch. 1.1, 1.2, 1.3
_____ Give worksheet Content Mastery due 1/29/08
Finish Ch. 1 discussion of topics.
_____ Give worksheet Reinforcement & Study Guide on Ch. 1 : due 1/29/08
TEST ON CH. 1 TOMORROW !!!!!!!!! STUDY.........YOUR 1ST BIG GRADE!
REMEMBER TO DO PRACTICE QUIZ ON TEXTBOOK WEB-SITE
GO TO CHAPTER RESOURCES AND CLICK ON UNIT 1, CH. 1. STUDY CHAPTER 1
1/29/08: Test on Ch. 1 ALL worksheets due!! NO LATE WORK ACCEPTED!!
Introduction of Ch. 2 - overview
_____ Homework: Read Ch. 2 (Page 35 45) Do Outline !
_____ Do Vocabulary Ch. 2 page 61 (ALL words) and Ch. 3 page 87 (1st 6 words ONLY)
THE FOLLOWING MATERIAL SUPPORT THE N.C. STANDARD COURSE OF STUDY GOALS AND OBJECTIVES: FOR CH. 2 THRU 5
Science - Biology
Goal 4: The learner will develop an understanding of ecological relationships among organisms.
Objective 4-1
Identify the interrelationships among organisms, populations, communities, ecosystems, and biomes.
Objective 4-2
Analyze the cycling of matter: water, carbon, and nitrogen in systems.
Objective 4-3
Explain the flow of energy through ecosystems.
Objective 4-4
Assess and describe successional changes in ecosystems.
Objective 4-5
Assess and explain human activities that influence and modify the environment:
- Global warming.
- Human population growth.
- Pesticide use.
1/30/08: Discuss Ch. 2 in detail
_____ Homework: Internet: Do activity to support information: Go to web-site www.nc.bdol.glencoe.com go to the Student Center and look around at the options you have for study and practice. You will have access to your textbook at home on the internet. The user codes that you need are as follows:
user name: BDOLNC05 password: 30554c75
Click on Chapter Resources and scroll down to Unit 2 then click on Chapter 2. Now click on Quiz. Now take the Quiz, choose the best answer, use the hints if you need them. When you are happy with your results and feel that you have a good understanding of these questions, e-mail your graded Quiz to me at jamesmr@rss.k12.nc.us _____ Homework: Read Ch. 2 (Pages 46 57) Do Outline !
1/31/08: Finish discussion of 2.2 and 2.3. Go over terms 3.1 Communities
TEST TOMORROW ON CH. 2 & 3.1 STUDY ! ALL ASSIGNMENTS DUE !
_____ Homework: Read 3.1 (Pages 65 69) Do Outline !
2/1/08: Watch video streaming: Ecology, organism and their environment.
Test Ch. 2
_____Do Vocabulary Ch. 4
_____Read Ch. 4 (Pages 90 103) Do Outline !
Week 2 (2/4 - 2/8)
2/4/08: Discuss Ch. 4.1 Population & things that effect population growth.
a. linear graphs
b. exponential graphs
Density dependent factors: disease, competition, parasites and food. Density independent factor: temperature, storms, floods, drought, habitat disruption.
Discuss Ch. 4.2 Human population growth: birth and death rates. Watch Cyber-Ed on Human Population
Test on Ch. 4 will be Wednesday 2/6/08
2/5/08: Continue discussion on Ch. 4: finish topics. Watch computer video streaming on "population". Lab: Page 104/105 How to determine the size of an animal population. Follow directions given by teacher and in the textbook. Test on Ch. 4 is tomorrow.
2/6/08: Test on Ch. 4:
Do Vocabulary for Ch. 5 on page 129 (16 words) Will be checked tomorrow.
Homework: Read Ch. 5 (page 110 120) Do Outline !
Begin discussion of Ch. 5.1 Vanishing Species
Terms to know: Endangered species
Extinction
Biodiversity and threats to biodiversity (habitat loss, habitat fragmentation, biotic issues, abiotic issues, habitat degradation, water pollution, land pollution, introduction of exotic species.)
Watch streaming video on "Where are all the animals
2/7/08: Begin discussion of 5.2 Conservation of Biodiversity:
legal protection, preserves, reintroduction programs
Video on exotic species introduction.
* Tropical rain forest has the most biodiversity of any terrestrial biomes.
* DDT is a chemical pesticide that caused bird eggs shells to be thin and the eggs broke, thus reducing future populations.
* The major threat to biodiversity is loss of habitat.
* All pollutions, air, water and soil are major risk factors our future.
Check Vocabulary and give worksheet at end of class on Ch. 5 Homework: Read pages 121 125 Do Outline ! Test Monday (2/11/08): Ch. 5: STUDY
2/8/08: Continue discussion of Ch. 5 Go to Media Center: Work on computers in Stanback Computer Lab on Internet BioLab on page 126 127. nc.bdol.glencoe.com/internet_lab
Test on Ch. 5 Monday, study internet quiz questions
Worksheet for Ch. 5 and Internet BioLab and outlines due Monday (2/11/08)
Week 3 (2/11 - 2/15)
2/11/08: Test on Ch. 5
Begin Ch. 6 vocabulary page 167 (29 words).
Read Ch. 6 page 141 151. Do Outline !
THE FOLLOWING MATERIAL SUPPORT THE N.C. STANDARD
COURSE OF STUDY GOALS AND OBJECTIVES: FOR CH. 6
Science - Biology
Goal 2: The learner will develop an understanding of the physical, chemical and
cellular basis of life.
Objective 2.01 Compare and contrast the structure and functions of the following
organic molecules;
Carbohydrates
Proteins
Lipids
Nucleic Acids
Objective 2.04 Investigate and describe the structure and function of enzymes and
explain their importance in biological systems.
2/12/08: Organic Chemistry
Do Questions 1 - 5 at the end of section 6.1 page 151
Discuss 6.1 The atom and atomic structure
Watch video on the Atomic Structure
Homework: Read 152 163 : Do Outline !
2/13/08: Worksheets on Ch. 6: Due at end of Class
2/14/08: Happy Valentines Day to one and all !!!
Discuss 6.2 Water and its properties
Polarity
Capillarity
Diffusion : The movement of a substance from an area of high concentration to
an area of low concentration.
Take notes off overhead on 6.1
MiniLab 6.2 page 155 (I need potato and purple Kool-Aid)
2/15/08:
Discuss 6.3
Take notes off overhead on Organic Chemistry 6.3 (macromolecules,
carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, steroids)
Do questions 1-5 at end of section 6.2 p.160
Watch streaming video on Organic Chemistry
Do worksheet on Ch. 6
Week 4 (2/18 -2/22)
2/18/08: Take notes on Organic Chemistry 6.3 (nucleic acids, DNA & RNA)
Review and wrap up loose ends
Do Ch. 6 Chapter Review: questions 1 - 20
Test tomorrow on Ch. 6 (2/19/08)
Things to Know for ORGANIC CHEMISTRY test.
CARBOHYDRATES, PROTEINS, LIPIDS, NUCLEIC ACIDS
A. CARBOHYDRATES
1. MONOSACCHARIDES ( GLUCOSE, FRUCTOSE, GALACTOSE )
FORMULA : C6 H12 O6 THEY ARE ISOMERS OF EACH OTHER.
ISOMER: SAME MOLECULAR FORMULA BUT DIFFERENT
STRUCTURAL FORMULA.
2. DISACCHARIDES : C12 H22 O11
MALTOSE ( MALT SUGAR) GLUCOSE + GLUCOSE
SUCROSE (TABLE SUGAR) GLUCOSE + FRUCTOSE
LACTOSE (MILK SUGAR) GLUCOSE + GALACTOSE
3. POLYSACCHARIDES: (C6 H10 O5)n
STARCH: MAIN FOOD STORAGE STRUCTURE
CELLULOSE: PLANT STRUCTURAL MATERIAL
GLYCOGEN: ANIMAL STARCH
B. PROTEINS
1. MADE OF SMALL UNITS CALLED AMINO ACIDS
2. THERE ARE 20 DIFFERENT AMINO ACIDS WHICH MAKE UP ALL
PROTEINS
3. ENZYMES ARE PROTEINS: ENZYMES ARE LIKE A LOCK & KEY
a. VERY SPECIFIC AS TO WHAT THEY WILL UNLOCK.
b. THREE THINGS AFFECT ENZYME ACTION
1. CONCENTRATION
2. pH
3. TEMPERATURE
c. ENZYMES SPEED UP A CHEMICAL REACTION WITHOUT
TAKING PART IN THE REACTION
4. AMINO ACIDS ARE BONDED TOGETHER BY PEPTIDE BONDS
A LONG CHAIN IS CALLED A POLYPEPTIDE CHAIN, WHICH
MAKES A PROTEIN.
C. LIPIDS:
1. FATS: SOLID AT ROOM TEMPERATURE
2. OILS: LIQUID AT ROOM TEMPERATURE
3. WAX
4. STEROIDS
5. FATS AND OILS ARE TRIGLYCERIDES: WHICH ARE MADE OF
ONE GLYCEROL MOLECULE AND THREE FATTY ACIDS.
6. WATER AND LIPIDS DON'T MIX.
D. NUCLEIC ACIDS: DNA & RNA
1. MADE UP OF NUCLEOTIDES: A SUGAR MOLECULE
A PHOSPHATE GROUP
A NITROGEN BASE ( A, T, C, G )
2. DNA: DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID
RNA: RIBONUCLEIC ACID
3. DNA: DOUBLE HELIX - CAN'T LEAVE NUCLEUS
RNA: SINGLE STRAND - CAN LEAVE NUCLEUS
4. DNA: NITROGEN BASES: A, T, C, G
RNA: NITROGEN BASES: A, U, C, G
2/19/08: Test on Ch. 6 Organic Chemistry
atomic structure, bonding (covalent and ionic), compounds, chemical formulas,
properties of water, diffusion, carbohydrates (monosaccharides, disaccharides,
polysaccharides), proteins (amino acids & enzymes), lipids (fats, oils, steroids),
nucleic acids (DNA & RNA).
Do Vocabulary for Ch. 7 page 191 (31 words)
Read Ch. 7 page 171 178 Do Outline !
Current Topic of Study, Assignments, Activities & Homework:
1/24/08 : Introduction to teacher and class topics.
Will make seating assignments, distribute textbooks, send home student information sheet, classroom rules form, give out North Carolina Standard Course of Study guidelines for Biology.
Go over expectations and goals.
1/25/08: Begin Ch. 1: What is Biology, what are fields of study in biology, what is the scientific method of doing research, what are tools of biology, what is the metric system of measurement.
Homework: Read Ch. 1
Do Vocabulary for Ch. 1 (at the end of the chapter)
Study what was presented today !!!!!!!!
Test on Ch. 1 will be Tuesday 1/29/08 BE READY !!!!!!!!!!!!!
Biology mean Study of living things.
Characteristics of living things:
1. living things are organized
2. living things reproduce and make more like living things
3. living things change by growth and development
4. living things adjust to their surroundings
5. living things adapt and evolve
Species is a group of organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring.
Biotic - the living part of the environment (frogs, people, bees, earthworms ect.)
Abiotic - the non-living part of the environment (air, water, soil, temperature, ect.)
Be familiar with a stimulus / response concept
Scientific method is composed of the following steps:
| 1. Identify the problem.
2. Research the problem so as to become informed.
3. Formulate a Hypothesis "educated guess"
4. Experiment to test the hypothesis
5. Make observations and collect data from experiment.
6. Draw conclusion
7. Report findings in Journal or Paper
8. Repeat experiment to verify results. |
Hypothesis may become Theory and theory may become Law.
Know the difference between Quantitative research and Descriptive research.
What are Ethics?
1/28/08 Continue discussion of Ch. 1.1, 1.2, 1.3
Give worksheet Content Mastery due 1/29/08
Finish Ch. 1 discussion of topics.
give worksheet Reinforcement & Study Guide on Ch. 1 : due 1/29/08
TEST ON CH. 1 TOMORROW !!!!!!!!! STUDY.........YOUR 1ST BIG GRADE!
REMEMBER TO DO PRACTICE QUIZ AT MY WEB-SITE LINKS, 5TH CHOICE
DOWN LIST. GO TO CHAPTER RESOURCES AND CLICK ON UNIT 1, CH. 1.
STUDY CHAPTER 1
1/29/08 : Test on Ch. 1 ( 30 minutes) all worksheets due !! NO LATE WORK ACCEPTED !!
Introduction of Ch. 2 - overview
Homework: Read Ch. 2
Do Vocabulary Ch. 2
THE FOLLOWING MATERIAL SUPPORT THE N.C. STANDARD
COURSE OF STUDY GOALS AND OBJECTIVES: FOR CH. 2 THRU 5
Science - Biology
Goal 4:
The learner will develop an understanding of ecological relationships
among organisms.
Objective 4-1
Identify the interrelationships among organisms, populations, communities, ecosystems, and biomes.
Objective 4-2
Analyze the cycling of matter: water, carbon, and nitrogen in systems.
Objective 4-3
Explain the flow of energy through ecosystems.
Objective 4-4
Assess and describe successional changes in ecosystems.
Objective 4-5
Assess and explain human activities that influence and modify the environment:
- Global warming.
- Human population growth.
- Pesticide use.
1/30/08 : Discuss Ch. 2 in detail
Do activity to support information: Go to web-site www.nc.bdol.glencoe.com go to the Student Center and look around at the options you have for study and practice. You will have access to your textbook at home on the internet. The user codes that you need are as follows: user name: BDOLNC05 password: 30554c75
Click on Chapter Resources and scroll down to Unit 2 then click on Chapter 2. Now click on Quiz. Now take the Quiz, choose the best answer, use the hints if you need them. When you are happy with your results and fell that you have a good understanding of these questions, e-mail your graded Quiz to me at jamesmr@rss.k12.nc.us
1/31/08: Finish discussion of 2.2 and 2.3 go over terms.
TEST TOMORROW ON CH. 2
2/1/08: Watch video streaming : Ecology, organism and their environment.
Test Ch. 2
Do Vocabulary Ch. 3
Read Ch. 3
2/4/08: Begin discussion of Ch. 3 succession, watch video streaming on succession.
Discuss Ch. 3 finish succession, start discussing Biomes.
2/5/08: Finish discussion of Ch. 3.2 Biomes
watch video streaming on Biomes
TEST ON CH. 3 Thursday
2/6/08 : Finish discussion on Ch. 3.2 - get worksheet on Ch. 3
Test on Ch. 3 tomorrow
2/7/08: Test on Ch. 3
: Start Ch. 4 vocabulary (8 words): Read Ch. 4
2/8/08: Discuss Ch. 4.1 Population & things that effect population growth.
a. linear graphs
b. exponential graphs
Density dependent factors: disease, competition, parasites and food.
Density independent factor: temperature, storms, floods, drought, habitate disruption.
Discuss Ch. 4.2 Human population growth : birth and death rates.
Test Monday 2/11/08!
2/11/08: Watch computer video streaming on "population". no notes just watch.
Test on Ch. 4:
Do Vocabulary for Ch. 5
Read Ch. 5
Begin discussion of Ch. 5 Vanishing Species
Endangered species
Extinction
Biodiversity and threats to biodiversity (habitat loss, habitat fragmentation, biotic issues, abiotic issues, habitat degradation, water pollution, land pollution, introduction of exotic species.)
Watch streaming video on "Where are all the animals"
2/12/08: Conservation of Biodiversity:
legal protection, preserves, reintroduction programs
Video on exotic species introduction.
Tropical rain forest have the most biodiversity of any terrestrial biomes.
DDT is a chemical pesticide that caused bird eggs shells to be thin and the eggs broke, thus reducing future populations.
The major threat to biodiversity is loss of habitat.
All pollutions, air, water and soil are major risk factors our future.
Give worksheet at end of class on Ch. 5
2/13/08: Continue discussion of Ch. 5
Test on Ch. 5 tomorrow, study internet quiz questions
Vocabulary due for Ch. 5 & Worksheet for Ch. 5 tomorrow
2/14/08: Test on Ch. 5 * Happy Valentine's Day *
Begin Ch. 6 vocabulary
Read Ch. 6
THE FOLLOWING MATERIAL SUPPORT THE N.C. STANDARD
COURSE OF STUDY GOALS AND OBJECTIVES: FOR CH. 6
Science - Biology
Goal 2:
The learner will develop an understanding of the physical, chemical and cellular basis of life.
Objective 2.01 Compare and contrast the structure and functions of the following organic molecules;
Carbohydrates
Proteins
Lipids
Nucleic Acids
Objective 2.04 Investigate and describe the structure and function of enzymes and explain their importance in biological systems.
2/15/08: Organic Chemistry
Do. questions 1 - 5 at the end of section 6.1
Discuss 6.1 The atom and atomic structure
Watch video on the atom
2/18/08: Discuss 6.2 Water and its properties
Polarity
Capillarity
Diffusion : The movement of a substance from an area of high concentration to an area
of low concentration.
Take notes off overhead on 6.1
Watch VCR video on Organic Chemistry 1st two programs
2/19/08: Discuss 6.3
Take notes off overhead on Organic Chemistry 6.3 (macromolecules, carbohydrates)
Do questions 1-5 at end of section 6.2 p.160
Watch streaming video on organic chemistry
2/20/08: Take notes off overhead on Organic Chemistry 6.3 (proteins, lipids, steriods)
Do worksheet on Ch. 6
2/21/08: Take notes off overhead on Organic Chemistry 6.3 (nucleic acids, DNA & RNA)
Review and wrap up loose ends
Do Ch. 6 Chapter Review: questions 1 - 20
Test tomorrow on Ch. 6
NOTES: ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
CARBOHYDRATES, PROTEINS, LIPIDS, NUCLEIC ACIDS
A. CARBOHYDRATES
1. MONOSACCHARIDES ( GLUCOSE, FRUCTOSE, GALACTOSE )
FORMULA : C6 H12 O6 THEY ARE ISOMERS OF EACH OTHER.
ISOMER: SAME MOLECULAR FORMULA BUT DIFFERENT STRUCTURAL
FORMULA.
2. DISACCHARIDES : C12 H22 O11
MALTOSE ( MALT SUGAR) GLUCOSE + GLUCOSE
SUCROSE (TABLE SUGAR) GLUCOSE + FRUCTOSE
LACTOSE (MILK SUGAR) GLUCOSE + GALACTOSE
3. POLYSACCHARIDES: (C6 H10 O5)n
STARCH: MAIN FOOD STORAGE STRUCTURE
CELLULOSE: PLANT STRUCTURAL MATERIAL
GLYCOGEN: ANIMAL STARCH
B. PROTEINS
1. MADE OF SMALL UNITS CALLED AMINO ACIDS
2. THERE ARE 20 DIFFERENT AMINO ACIDS WHICH MAKE UP ALL PROTEINS
3. ENZYMES ARE PROTEINS: ENZYMES ARE LIKE A LOCK AND KEY
a. VERY SPECIFIC AS TO WHAT THEY WILL UNLOCK.
b. THREE THINGS AFFECT ENZYME ACTION
1. CONCENTRATION
2. pH
3. TEMPERATURE
c. ENZYMES SPEED UP A CHEMICAL REACTION WITHOUT TAKING PART
IN THE REACTION
4. AMINO ACIDS ARE BONDED TOGETHER BY PEPTIDE BONDS
A LONG CHAIN IS CALLED A POLYPEPTIDE CHAIN, WHICH MAKES
A PROTEIN.
C. LIPIDS:
1. FATS: SOLID AT ROOM TEMPERATURE
2. OILS: LIQUID AT ROOM TEMPERATURE
3. WAX
4. STEROIDS
5. FATS AND OILS ARE TRIGLYCERIDES: WHICH ARE MADE OF
ONE GLYCEROL MOLECULE AND THREE FATTY ACIDS.
6. WATER AND LIPIDS DON'T MIX.
D. NUCLEIC ACIDS: DNA & RNA
1. MADE UP OF NUCLEOTIDES: A SUGAR MOLECULE
A PHOSPHATE GROUP
A NITROGEN BASE ( A, T, C, G )
2. DNA: DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID
RNA: RIBONUCLEIC ACID
3. DNA: DOUBLE HELIX - CAN'T LEAVE NUCLEUS
RNA: SINGLE STRAND - CAN LEAVE NUCLEUS
4. DNA: NITROGEN BASES: A, T, C, G
RNA: NITROGEN BASES: A, U, C, G
2/22/08: Test on Ch. 6 Organic Chemistry
atomic structure, bonding (covalent and ionic), compounds, chemical formulas, properties of
water, diffusion, carbohydrates (monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides),
proteins (amino acids & enzymes), lipids (fats, oils, steroids), nucleic acids (DNA & RNA).
Do Vocabulary for Ch. 7
Read Ch. 7
THE FOLLOWING MATERIAL SUPPORT THE N.C. STANDARD
COURSE OF STUDY GOALS AND OBJECTIVES: FOR CH. 7 & 8
Goal 2:
The learner will develop an understanding of the physical, chemical and cellular basis of life.
Objective 2.02 Investigate and describe the structure and function of cells including: Cell organelles, Cell specialization, Communication among cells within an organism.
Objective 2.03 Investigate and analyze the cell as a living system including: Maintenance of homeostasis, Movement of materials into and out of the cell, Energy use and release in biochemical reactions.
Objective 2.04 Investigate and describe the structure/function of enzymes & explain their importance in biological systems.
2/25/08: Remember to Do Vocabulary for Ch. 7 , Read Ch. 7
Introduction to Ch. 7: History of the Cell, History of the Microscope
Watch 118 Greenstreet: visual of different microscope images.
1. KNOW WHO AND WHAT THEY DID, FOR:
ROBERT HOOKE
MATTHIAS SCHLEIDEN
THEODORE SCHWANN
ANTON VON LEEUWENHOEK
ROBERT BROWN
RUDOLF VIRDHOW | |
2. THREE TYPES OF MICROSCOPES: COMPOUND LIGHT MICROSCOPE
(TEM) TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
(SEM) SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
(STM) SCANNING TUNNELING MICROSCOPE
3. TWO TYPES OF CELLS:
a. PROKARYOTIC: NO MEMBRANE BOUND STRUCTURES
EXAMPLE ARE BACTERIA
b. EUKARYOTIC: HAVE MEMBRANE BOUND STRUCTURES
EXAMPLE: ALL CELL EXCEPT BACTERIA
4. Basic parts of a compound light microscope:
a. Eyepiece (Ocular): Usually contains a 10X lens.
b. Arm: contains the housing for the fine and coarse adjustments and connects the base of the
microscope to the nosepiece and ocular.
c. Nosepiece: A rotating head that has the objective lenses attached to it. The lens to be used should
"click" into position when the wheel is gently turned so that it is directly over the speciman
slide.
d. Objective: Basically a housing for a lens. Our microscopes have three objective lenses
- 4X, 10X, and 40X.
e. Stage: The speciman slides rests on this part of the microscope.
f. Coarse adjustment knobs: The larger of two sets of knobs located on either side of the arm, just above
the base. This adjustment is used to make large adjustments in focusing by
moving the lenses up and down. Never use this adjustment when using the
40X objective.
g. Fine adjustment knobs: The smaller of two sets of knobs located on either side of the arm. This
adjustment is used to make small adjustments in focusing. It has a limited
amount of movement and is most efficiently used after focusing with the 4X
objective and coarse focus, then increasing magnification and making final
adjustments with the fine focus knob.
h. Light source: Located directly under the stage.
i. Adjustable diaphragm: This rotating wheel on the underside of the stage allows the user to adjust the
amount of light that passes through the specimen. As a general rule, the lowest
intensity of light that allows you to resolve the structure of the object you are
viewing should be used.
EXTRA CREDIT:BRING SAMPLES OF INSECTS, GREEN SCUMMY POND WATER, FLOWERS, POTATO, ONION TO OBSERVE UNDER THE MICROSCOPE.
Go over the parts of a Microscope: give handout with Microscope labeled drawing
Microscope Lab: learn to use microscope and investigate different cells.
2/26/08: Watched video "How Microscopes Work"
2/27/08: Do Microscope lab
2/28/08: May need to finish Microscope lab if not finished.
Go over 7.2 Makeup of the cell membrane and how it works
2/29/08: Go over parts of cell had name organelles and their functions.
Be able to label drawings of animal and plant cells.
Notes on Cell Organelles:
The fundamental structures of cells
All cells have certain characteristics:
They are surrounded by a lipid membrane which separates them
from their environment-the "plasma membrane". However,
membranes are not impermeable. Various substances move both
into and out of cells across membranes; this is probably their
most important characteristic.
Since cells must both generate all of the biological molecules
necessary for their functioning, and reproduce themselves, they
all include DNA as genetic material, which is segregated into a
DNA-containing region.
All cells also include a region distinct from the DNA-containing
region within which much of the biochemical activity of the cell
proceeds.
The structure of the plasma membrane
The plasma membrane is a bilayer of lipid molecules, largely phospholipids.
Since phospholipids include a very hydrophobic region (the fatty acid tails)
and a very hydrophilic region (the head group), they spontaneously
self-assemble into a structure consisting of two layers of phospholipids, the
hydrophobic tails on the inside away from the aqueous solvent, and the
hydrophilic head groups on the outside, interacting with the water.
The very "fatty" interior of the membrane provides a barrier against the free
movement of water soluble molecules, such as the contents of the cell.
Prokaryotes are the simplest cells
Prokaryotic cells have the simplest overall structure.
The prokaryotic cell is bounded by a lipid bilayer membrane, but does not
contain any internal membrane-bound organelles. It contains a region rich in
DNA called a nucleoid.
The nucleoid contains a circular molecule of DNA which is the cells
genetic material, or genome.
Surrounding the nucleoid is a region of cytoplasm rich in ribosomes, small
protein-RNA structures which do the job of synthesizing proteins. Finally,
surrounding the plasma membrane is a cell wall
Prokaryotes can have surface appendages which do particular jobs. Flagella
are used for locomotion. Pili are used for sexual reproduction (mating)
One of the more surprising aspects of cell structure is the way that DNA
molecules are packaged into cells.
The genome of a common bacterium like the gut bacterium
Escherichia coli is about 1.5 millimeters in length, but the length of
the bacterium is about 1000 times shorter.
In the nucleoid, the DNA is both compacted so as to fit within the
bacterium, and yet is still accessible to the machinery necessary
both to read the genetic instructions (synthesize RNA) and to
copy the DNA (replicate).
Eukaryotic cells are much more complex
By contrast to prokaryotic cells, eukaryotic cells are much more complicated.
Much of the cell is taken up by subcellular organelles bound by their own
membranes (analogous to the plasma membrane surrounding the cell)
Most importantly, eukaryotic cells have a nucleus which contains all of the
cell's DNA. In fact, "eukaryote" means "true nucleus" while "prokaryote" means
"before the nucleus". This emphasizes the central importance of the nucleus to
the eukaryotic cell, and suggests that prokaryotes are more primitive
organisms, and that eukaryotes evolved from them by, among other things,
acquiring a true nucleus.
The problem of packaging DNA is greater in eukaryotes. A human
genome would stretch about 1 meter, but must fit in a cell 50,000
times smaller.
However, eukaryotic cells (which included plants, animals, and fungi) include
many other subcellular structures with important roles in cellular metabolism
Structure of a "typical" plant cell
There is of course no "typical" plant cell-all are unique. However, we can imagine
a hypothetical plant cell which includes all of the features found in the various
plants.
The most obvious feature of plant cells, in contrast to prokaryotes, is the
existence of elaborate subcellular structure:
Italicized are found only in plants:
Nucleus
Contains DNA. Genetic information storage. Expression into
RNA
Nucleolus
Rich in RNA. Site of ribosomal RNA synthesis. Assembly of
ribosomes
Chloroplast
Photosynthetic. Conversion of light energy into chemical
energy. Chlorophyll-rich membranes
Mitochondrion
Respiration. Site of aerobic metabolism, converts food
energy into useful form (ATP)
Vacuole
Large storage organ. Storage of nutrients & water. Most
obvious feature of plant cells
Endoplasmic
reticulum (E.R.)
Membraneous structure. Starts at nuclear membrane,
extends intocytoplasm
Rough E.R.
Ribosomes. Synthesis of exported proteins
Smooth E.R.
No ribosomes. Synthesis of lipids
Golgi body
Membraneous. Intermediate in protein export
Cell wall
External structure. Rigid structure, provides support and
protection
Structure of the "typical" animal cell
Many of the structures are shared with plants, but lacks cell wall and chloroplast.
The most important difference between plant and animal cells is the fact that
plant cells do not have the capacity for movement.
Movement of animal cells is important in normal cell function (e.g.,
phagocytic cells). Movement is critical in development.
Animal cells are also not able to trap energy from light since they lack
chloroplasts. They are required to get energy necessary to life by eating other
living things.
Important issues to deal with
1.How does the cell express its genetic information?
2.How do cells capture or acquire energy?
3.How are proteins targeted to particular locations in the cell
TEST MONDAY ON THE CELL
3/03/08: TEST ON CH. 7 THE CELL
TURN IN VOCABUALRY CH. 7
READ CH. 8
DO VOCABULARY CH. 8
: Cover 8.1 about diffusion and osmosis
Osmosis: the diffusion of water from an area of high concentration to an area of low
concentration.
Discuss the structure of the Plasma Membrane: which is a double layer of phospholipids.
Discuss how water and molecules can move through the Plasma Membrane.
Discuss Passive and Active transport.
3/04/08: Watch a streaming video on Mitosis ( Ch. 8.2)
Discuss the Cell cycle: G1, S stage,G2 (total called Interphase) know what occurres at each step.
Discuss Mitosis ( Cell division ): Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase and Telophase: know what
happens at each step !!!!!!!!!
Discuss cancer: uncontrolled cell division.
Causes and preventions of cancer.
Most common types, cases vs. survival
treatment: radiation and chemotherapy
TEST TOMORROW ON CH. 8 MITOSIS
3/05/08: Test on Ch. 8
Do vocabulary for Ch. 9 ( 18 words )
Read Ch. 9.1 ATP energy and 9.2 photosynthesis
THE FOLLOWING MATERIAL SUPPORT THE N.C. STANDARD
COURSE OF STUDY GOALS AND OBJECTIVES: FOR CH. 9
Goal 2:
The learner will develop an understanding of the physical, chemical and cellular basis of life.
Objective 2.05 Investigate and analyze the bioenergetic reactions:
- Aerobic respiration.
- Anaerobic respiration.
- Photosynthesis.
3/06/08: Take up vocabulary Ch. 9
Discuss 9.1 : ATP, ADP & AMP
BATTERIES OF THE CELL: charge and discharge
Energy for all activity
Watch streaming video on The energy cycle: What is energy, What is ATP and how does it work. Exergonic (energy out) and Endergonic (energy in) reactions.
Photosynthesis and its processes.
Begin writing down overhead notes on Photosynthesis
1. The energy cycle
2. The Chloroplast structure: site of Photosynthesis
3/07/08: Continue writing down overhead notes on Photosynthesis:
3. The electromagnetic spectrum: R O Y G B I V
4. Leaf drawing showing all the in's and out's of chemical reations.
5. Melvin Calvin's work & how photosynthesis reactions were discovered.
6a. Cyclic Light reaction/light dependent reaction
6b. Non-cyclic Light reaction/light dependent reaction
7. Dark reaction/carbon fixation/C3/Calvin Cycle/Light independent reaction
8. Summary of Photosynthesis
Watch streaming video on Photosynthesis: take notes
TEST WEDNESDAY ON CH. 9.1 AND 9.2: ATP AND PHOTOSYNTHESIS
3/10/08: Finish overhead notes:
7. Dark reaction or Calvin Cycle
8. Overview of Photosynthesis: showing what occurs where.
Do a worksheet to reinforce materials covered to this point on Ch. 9.1 and Ch. 9.2
3/11/08: Review material and finish worksheet on 9.1 & 9.2
3/12/08 : Test on Ch. 9.1 and 9.2 only
Begin on Vocabulary for ch. 10, 11, 12, 13 : due 3/18/08
3/13/08: Start Respiration which is 9.3 by viewing streaming video on Respiration.
Cover 9.3: Glycolysis
Aerobic Respiration
Anaerobic Respiration: Alcohol fermentation
Lactic acid fermentation
Give overhead notes on above mentioned.
3/14/08: Discuss in detail Cellular respiration: give processes and steps:
Do worksheet on 9.3 respiration.
TEST MONDAY ON CH. 9.3 RESPIRATION
3/17/08: Test on Respiration 9.3
When finished Do Vocabulary for Ch. 10,11,12,13
Work on mid-term exam practice/review which is due 3/12/04
3/18/08: Give students time to work on their exam review and vocabulary assignment or study
3/12/04: Go over exam review, give students answers to the review.
3/18 - 22/04 :THE FOLLOWING MATERIAL SUPPORT THE N.C. STANDARD
COURSE OF STUDY GOALS AND OBJECTIVES:
* GOAL 2: THE LEARNER WILL DEVELOP AN UNDERSTANDING OF THE
CONTINUITY OF LIFE AND THE CHANGES OF ORGANISMS OVER TIME.
> OBJECTIVE 2.1: ANALYZE THE MOLECULAR BASIS OF HEREDITY/DNA
INCLUDING:
1. REPLICATION 2. PROTEIN SYNTHESIS (transcription and tranlation).
> OBJECTIVE 2.3: INTERPRET AND USE THE LAWS OF PROBABILITY TO PREDICT
PATTERNS OF INHERITANCE.
> OBJECTIVE 2.4: ASSESS THE APPLICATION OF DNA TECHNOLOGY TO
FORENSICS, MEDICINE, AND AGRICULTURE.
> OBJECTIVE 2.5: ANALYZE AND EXPLAIN THE ROLE OF GENETICS AND
ENVIRONMENT IN HEALTH AND DISEASE.
3/18/04: Turn in Vocabulary Ch. 10,11,12,13
Begin discussion of Ch. 10.1
Discussed overview of unit: Gregor Mendel - Father of Modern Genetics
Monohybrid Crosses/Dihybrid Crosses
Meiosis
Watched Streaming Video on Basic Genetics
3/19/04 : Use overhead to go over Genetics terms and history
work Monohybrid problems: do many examples
3/20 & 21/04: Another weekend, mid-terms are over, relax...EOC's are on the way !!!
3/22/04: Use overhead to go over Dihybrid problems
work several examples in class.
3/23/04: Review Monohybrid and Dihybrid problems
View a streaming video on "Meiosis"
Discuss and view Ch. 10.2 on meiosis...Study Meiosis and learn all phases and what
occurs at each phase.
Meiosis: Interphase/Prophase 1/Metaphase 1/Anaphase 1/ Telophase 1
Prophase 2/Metaphase 2/Anaphase 2/ Telophase 2
3/24/04: Discuss Ch. 11.1 and 11.2...Go over basic DNA and RNA.
Watch video streaming on DNA and RNA.
Do coin toss lab: show how prediction with punnett square actually works in reality.
H H = heads / heads
H h = heads / tails
h h = tails / tails
using two coins at the same time, shake and toss them. Keep a count of what you
get each time in a chart. The prediction is for 25% heads/heads, 50% heads/tails and
25% tails/tails. Make your toss 100 times: no more, no less !!!!!!!!!
See how close you actually get to the prediction.
H h
----------------------
H | HH | Hh |
----------------------
h | Hh | hh |
----------------------- |  |
Read 11.1 , Do questions 1 - 5 on section review.
3/25/04: See how DNA and RNA play a role in protein synthesis. Learn the whole process of
protein synthesis. Watch video streaming on protein synthesis.
Discuss ways genetics is used in everyday life in farming, animal production, pets,
to solve crimes, having a family and much more.
3/26/04 : When finished with test, work on Chromosomal Disorders using paper puzzles of
chromosomes to cut out. Match up chromosomes pairs and then see how things work.
3/27 & 28/04 Have a Great Weekend, be careful and safe !!!!
3/29/04 thru 4/1/04
THE FOLLOWING MATERIAL SUPPORT THE N.C. STANDARD
COURSE OF STUDY GOALS AND OBJECTIVES:
* GOAL 2: THE LEARNER WILL DEVELOP AN UNDERSTANDING OF THE
CONTINUITY OF LIFE AND THE CHANGES OF ORGANISMS OVER TIME.
> OBJECTIVE 2.1: ANALYZE THE MOLECULAR BASIS OF HEREDITY/DNA
INCLUDING:
1. REPLICATION 2. PROTEIN SYNTHESIS (transcription and tranlation).
> OBJECTIVE 2.3: INTERPRET AND USE THE LAWS OF PROBABILITY TO PREDICT
PATTERNS OF INHERITANCE.
> OBJECTIVE 2.4: ASSESS THE APPLICATION OF DNA TECHNOLOGY TO
FORENSICS, MEDICINE, AND AGRICULTURE.
> OBJECTIVE 2.5: ANALYZE AND EXPLAIN THE ROLE OF GENETICS AND
ENVIRONMENT IN HEALTH AND DISEASE.
3/29/04: Discussed Ch. 12.1 today in class...study key words and genetics problems.
Do Individual Human Genetic Traits Lab:
1. ear lobe free or attached
2. widow's peak or straight hair line
3. can or can't roll tongue
4. hitchhikers thumb or straight thumb
5. bent little finger or straight little finger
6. mid-digital hair or no mid-digital hair
7. 2nd finger shorter than 4th or 2nd finger longer than 4th
3/30/04: Discussed Ch. 12.2 & 12.3 today in class...study key words and genetics problems.
monohybrid cross, dihybrid cross, incomplete dominance, sex-linked, sex-influenced,
codominance, multiple alleles, polygenic traits.
Get worksheet of practice genetic problems...for homework.
Continue to show and practice new genetic problems.
Discuss Ch. 13, Genetic tools used in todays world.
3/31/04: TEST ON UNIT 4 chapter 10,11,12,13
After test begin vocabulary for Ch. 14, 15, 16, 17
4/3 & 4/04: Rest up over the weekend, short week ahead.
========================================================================
4/1/04 thru 4/8/04 THE FOLLOWING MATERIAL SUPPORT THE N.C. STANDARD
COURSE OF STUDY GOALS AND OBJECTIVES:
* GOAL 2: THE LEARNER WILL DEVELOP AN UNDERSTANDING OF THE
CONTINUITY OF LIFE AND THE CHANGES OF ORGANISMS OVER TIME.
> OBJECTIVE 2.6: EXAMINE THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE THEORY OF
BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION, INCLUDING: 1. THE ORIGIN OF LIFE
2. PATTERNS 3. VARIATION 4. NATURAL SELECTION.
* GOAL 3: THE LEARNER WILL DEVELOP AN UNDERSTANDING OF THE UNITY
AND DIVERSITY OF LIFE.
> OBJECTIVE 3.1: RELATE THE VARIETY OF LIVING ORGANISMS TO THEIR
EVOLUTIONARY RELATIONSHIPS.
> OBJECTIVE 3.2: CLASSIFY ORGANISMS ACCORDING TO CURRENTLY
ACCEPTED SYSTEMS.
4/5/04 : Begin Unit 5, Start with a discussion on geologic history of earth.
watch a streaming video on geologic history of earth (28 min.)
Discuss basic information about the early history of earth.
Students must learn the Eras & Periods of the Geologic Time Table on page 382 & 383.
Read Ch. 14 >>>>>>>>>>REMEMBER TO GET VOCABULARY DONE!!!!
4/6/04 : VOCABULARY DUE TODAY FOR CH. 14,15,16,17
Show students samples of fossils, discuss fossil type and formation.
Discuss fossil dating techniques.
Go over Geologic Time Table
Discuss early earth atmosphere and how it has changed.
Discuss how life is thought to have begun, several different theories.
4/7/04 : Test on Ch. 14
4/8/04 thru 4/18/04 SPRING BREAK...HAVE FUN BUT GET SOME REST !!
4/19/04: Watch video on Charles Darwin (10 min.) Read Ch. 15 >>>>>>REMEMBER VOC.!!
Discuss the Theory of Evolution, its parts and supporting evidences.
Watch streaming video on Evolution.
Worksheet on Ch. 14,15,17
4/20/04 : Finish discussion of evolution. Ch. 15
Remember to continue working on Worksheet. Ch. 14 and 15 should be done tonight.
4/21/04 : Brief discussion of human evolution. Ch. 16
Write paragraph on evolution in correct style to practice for writing test.
4/22/04: Discuss Classification Ch. 17
Learn who developed modern method of classification.
Steps of levels of classification: Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
Do a classification key so students can practice using one. "Freshwater Fish of N. America"
Watch streaming video on classification. TEST WILL BE FRIDAY ON UNIT 5
4/23/04 : TEST ON UNIT 5: CHAPTERS 15, 16, 17
Work on vocabulary for Ch. 18, 19, 20 after you finish your test.
Turn in Worksheet Ch. 14,15,17
Turn in vocabulary Ch. 14,15,16,17
Watch computer video on classification, turn in question sheet from video.
BEGIN READING CH. 18
4/24 & 25/04: Have a safe weekend, stay out of trouble !!
4/26/04 thru 5/5/04: THE FOLLOWING MATERIAL SUPPORT THE N.C. STANDARD
COURSE OF STUDY GOALS AND OBJECTIVES:
* GOAL 3: THE LEARNER WILL DEVELOP AN UNDERSTANDING OF THE UNITY
AND DIVERSITY OF LIFE.
> OBJECTIVE 3.1: RELATE THE VARIETY OF LIVING ORGANISMS TO THEIR
EVOLUTIONARY RELATIONSHIPS.
> OBJECTIVE 3.2: CLASSIFY ORGANISMS ACCORDING TO CURRENTLY
ACCEPTED SYSTEMS.
> OBJECTIVE 3.4: COMPARE/CONTRAST CHARACTERISTICS OF MAJOR
ORGANISM PHYLA.
4/26/04: Begin Unit 6 :Chapter 18, 19 and 20 (Kingdom Archeabacteria, Eubacteria & Protista)
Watch introduction to viruses and bacteria, how we are effected by these unseen organisms.
REMEMBER YOUR VOCABULARY!!!!!!!!!! CH. 18,19,20
4/27/04: Discuss viruses and why they are not considered living, how they affect us, how they are
able to take control and much more. Including AIDS, genital herpes, the common cold and
the flu.
4/28/04: Characteristics of bacteria, how they are classified, some common terms you have heard
but haven't understood the relationship to bacteria. Antibiotics and how the work.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4/29/04: Kingdom Protista: How are the classified, what puts different organisms into different
groups, the differences between autotrophic and heterotrophic protist.
Discuss Ch. 19.1
View video on protozoans "Introduction to Protozoans". Take notes.
4/30/04: Finish discussion of Ch. 19.2 and Ch. 19.3 Algae and Fungus-like protist.
Begin discusion on Ch. 20
Discuss Kingdom Fungi: What role does it play in our world? We eat fungi, when? YUK!
Look at the different types of fungi and the structural parts that make them up.
What do you mean I have fungi that eat my skin!!! HELP!
5/1 & 2/04: Happy May Day, enjoy the warm weather !!!
5/3/04: Finish up any unfinished topics. Review briefly viruses, bacteria, protist and fungi.
Do reinforcement activity so students can work with topic.
5/4/04: TEST ON UNIT 6: CHAPTERS 18, 19, 20
After test begin work on Ch. 21, 22, 23, 24 Vocabulary: Homework: Read Ch. 21
=============================================================================
5/5/04 thru 5/11/04 THE FOLLOWING MATERIAL SUPPORT THE N.C. STANDARD
COURSE OF STUDY GOALS AND OBJECTIVES:
GOAL 3: THE LEARNER WILL DEVELOP AN UNDERSTANDING OF THE UNITY
AND DIVERSITY OF LIFE.
> OBJECTIVE 3.1: RELATE THE VARIETY OF LIVING ORGANISMS TO THEIR
EVOLUTIONARY RELATIONSHIPS.
> OBJECTIVE 3.2: CLASSIFY ORGANISMS ACCORDING TO CURRENTLY
ACCEPTED SYSTEMS.
> OBJECTIVE 3.3: FORM AND FUNCTION OF ORGANISMS (PLANT/ANIMAL SYSTEM)
> OBJECTIVE 3.4: COMPARE/CONTRAST CHARACTERISTICS OF MAJOR
ORGANISM PHYLA.
> OBJECTIVE 3.5: FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE GROWTH/DEVELOPMENT OF
ORGANISM.
5/5/04: Plant Information pointed out on web-site
Begin overview discussion of plants. Watch streaming video on plants.
Learn some of the basic characteristics of a plant.
How are plants classified and grouped together. REMEMBER VOCABULARY!
5/6/04: CH. 21 Origins of plants - green algae, Adaptations in plants - 1. preventing water loss,
2. photosynthesis, 3. roots, 4. transporting materials - (vascular tissue: xylem & phloem), 5. reproduction,
6. alternation of generation.
Plants are the main food source for humans!
Jobs related to plants: landscaping, farming, agriculture, plant nurseries, flowers, logging, medicine, ect.
Plant Kingdom: 1. Non-seeded plants
Hepatophyta - liverwort :: Anthocerophyta - hornwort :: Bryophyta - mosses
Psilophyta - whisk ferns :: Lycophyta - club mosses :: Sphenophyta - horsetails
Pterophyta - ferns
2. Seeded plants
Cycadophyta - cycads :: Gnetophyta - welwitschia :: Ginkgophtya - Ginkgo tree
Coniferophyta - evergreen trees like pine, cider, fir, cypress, giant red woods....
Anthophyta - flowering plants like fruit trees, landscape flowers, vegetables.....
5/7/04: CH. 22 Diversity of plants
What is a Nonvascular Plant? A plant without vascular tissue (no xylem or phloem)
What is xylem? Its like an up elevator, it carries water and nutrients from roots up.
What is phloem? Its like a down elevator, it carries food from leaves to roots.
Discuss simple plants and their adaptations to the environment in which they are found.
What is a Non-seeded Vascular Plant? Plants that have vascular tissue but make spores.
Discuss non-seeded vascular plants, like ferns, horsetails....
What is a Seeded Plant? Any plant that produces pollen and seeds.
Fertilization and reproduction. Watch a 13 min. computer video on flowers.
Give out EOC review terms and EOC practice exams (100 questions).
5/8 & 9/04: Only three more weeks of school, work hard for best results !!!!!!!!!!!!
5/10/04: CH 23 Plant Structure and Function
Types of cells: Parenchyma, Collenchyma, Sclerenchyma
Types of tissue: Dermal tissue (epidermis), Vascular tissue (xylem: up & phloem: down)
Ground tissue (all tissue other than the first two mentioned),
Meristematic tissue ( new, actively growing cellular region of plant).
Roots: Tap or Fiberous (function to anchor plant and absorb water & nutrients)
Stems: Herbacious (cellulose) or Woody (cellulose and lignin).(function to support plant)
Leaves: (function to collect light for photosynthesis)
Plant response: Hormones ( auxins: promote cell elongation)
(gibberellins: causes plants to grow taller, cell elongation)
(cytokinins: stimulate cell division)
(ethylene: speeds up the rate of ripening fruit)
Plant response: Stimulus - any response to stimulus is called tropism.
Phototropism: response to light
Gravitropism or Geotropism : response to gravity
Thigmotropism: response to touch
CH 24 Reproduction in Plants
We have discussed this throughout the week.
Alternation of Generation: Sporophyte generation <------->Gametophyte generation
2n - diploid n - haploid
makes spores makes gametes
Vegetative reproduction: a form of asexual reproduction - the ability of most plants to
form new plants from parts of existing plants.
Ex: rooting a stem cutting from a plant or getting a new african violet from a leaf.
Alternation of Generation of the following:
1. A moss - p.655
2. A fern - p. 656
3. A conifer - p. 658-660 cone production ( male and female cones)
4. A flowering plant : Flower parts: Stamen - male (anther, filament)
Pistil - female (stigma, style, ovary, ovule)
Pollination/Fertilization
Seed: dispersal ( wind, water, attachment, food/waste drops seed ect.)
germination ( water, temperature )
STUDY ALL THIS AND FOR ADDITIONAL HELP GO TO THE BIODIGEST ON
PAGE 684 THRU PAGE 689. DON'T FORGET THE PLANT HANDOUT YOU
WERE GIVEN.
5/11/04: TEST ON UNIT 7: PLANTS (COVERS CH. 21,22,23,24)
The test is100 questions: 7 t/f, 58 m/c, 35 matching on bubble sheets:BRING PENCIL!!
VOCABULARY DUE TODAY FOR THOSE CHAPTERS.
after test work on your EOC practice exam!!!!!!!!
We will not be doing vocabulary for the rest of year!!!!!!!!!! Use all extra time preparing
for your State End Of Course Biology Exam !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
============================================================================
5/12/04 thru 5/19/04 THE FOLLOWING MATERIAL SUPPORT THE N.C. STANDARD
COURSE OF STUDY GOALS AND OBJECTIVES:
GOAL 3: THE LEARNER WILL DEVELOP AN UNDERSTANDING OF THE UNITY
AND DIVERSITY OF LIFE.
> OBJECTIVE 3.1: RELATE THE VARIETY OF LIVING ORGANISMS TO THEIR
EVOLUTIONARY RELATIONSHIPS.
> OBJECTIVE 3.2: CLASSIFY ORGANISMS ACCORDING TO CURRENTLY
ACCEPTED SYSTEMS.
> OBJECTIVE 3.3: FORM AND FUNCTION OF ORGANISMS (PLANT/ANIMAL SYSTEM)
> OBJECTIVE 3.4: COMPARE/CONTRAST CHARACTERISTICS OF MAJOR
ORGANISM PHYLA.
> OBJECTIVE 3.5: FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE GROWTH/DEVELOPMENT OF
ORGANISM.
5/12/04 THRU 5/19/04: Introduction to the Animal Kingdom and Body Systems
Invertebrates: animals without backbones/ Vertebrates: animal with backbones.
Characteristics of animals: eukayotic, multicelluar, most able to move about, heterotrophic,
form: (tissues, organs & organ systems), cell DO NOT have cell walls.
Development: egg/sperm/zygote/blastula ( hollow ball of cells)/gastrula(cells collapse inward
on one side, like a bowl), embryo, fetus, baby organism.
Three germ layers: Endoderm: inner cells, Mesoderm: middle cells, Ectoderm: outer cells
Protostome: The opening during gastrula stage develops into a mouth.
Deuterostome: The opening during gastrula stage DOES NOT develop into a mouth.
Symmetry: Asymmetrical - have no definite shape
Radial symmetry - can be divided along ANY plane, through a central axis
Bilateral symmetry - can be divided down its length into mirror imaged halves
Body cavity plans: acoelomate - has no body cavity
pseudocoelomate - has a false body cavity
eucoelomate - has a true body cavity, completely lined with mesoderm
Animal Support: exoskeleton - external skeleton, endoskeleton - internal skeleton
Classification of the Animal Kingdom
Outline the nine phyla we will cover:
1. Phylum Porifera - Sponges
2. Phylum Cnideria - Jellyfish
3. Phylum Platyhelminthes - Flatworms (tapeworm)
4. Phylum Nematoda - Roundworms (hookworm)
5. Phylum Annelida - Segmented worms (earthworm)
6. Phylum Mollusca - All sea shells, clams, oysters, squid
7. Phylum Arthropoda - insects, spiders, crabs, centipedes, millipedes
8. Phylum Echinodermata - starfish, sanddollars, sea cucumbers
9. Phylum Chordata - all vertebrates - jawless fish, cartilage fish, bony fish, amphibians,
reptiles, birds, mammals and man.
: Discuss invertebrate animals : last of Ch. 25, Ch. 26
Sponges, Jellyfish, Flatworms
TURN IN EOC PRACTICE EXAM BUBBLE SHEET, NO LATE TURN IN.
Watch Computer Video Streaming on Invertebrates - discuss and take notes for grade.
Phylum Porifera: Sponges: Multicellular, Eukaryotic, Heterotrophic (filter feeders), Asymmetrical,
aquatic (mostly marine, with a few freshwater species), function on cellular level - no tissue.
Osculum - large excurrent opening in top of sponge, Ostia - smaller incurrent openings on side of sponge
Ectoderm only (epithelial cells): no mesoderm or endoderm, Collar cell (Choanocytes): three functions
1. create water current, 2. catch food, 3. become sperm for sexual reproduction., Amoebocytes: three
functions 1. distribute food, 2. form spicules, 3. become eggs for sexual reproduction.,
Spicules - form the skeleton of the sponge, Found in three forms 1. monaxon (single axis like sewing
needle), 2. triaxon (three axis points), 3. hexaxon (six axis points)., Spicules can be composed of three
different substances: 1. spongin (soft, flexible, but strong), 2. calcium carbonate (limestone)
3. silica (glass)., Can reproduce asexually by budding, fragmentation, regeneration and gemmules, can reproduce sexually with sperm and egg. Hermaphrodite - both male and female reproductive organs in
one organism. Have external reproduction - sperm and eggs freely released into the water.
Examples: Bath Sponge - made of spongin, Venus Flowerbasket - made of silica.
Phylum Cnidaria: Class Hydrozoa - example Hydra, Portuguese man-of-war (Physalia)
Class Scyphozoa - example jellyfish
Class Anthozoa - example Sea anemones, Coral
Multicellular, Eukaryotic, Heterotrophic, Radial symmetry, aquatic (mostly marine, with a few freshwater
species), function on tissue level, two body forms 1. medusa (umbrella like), 2. polyp (stalk like)
Has endoderm and ectoderm but no mesoderm. Have a mouth only, no anus.
Cnidoblast - stinging cell, Nematocyst - harpoon attached to hollow cord to inject toxin.
Oxygen absorbed directly into each cell, primative nervous system called nerve net (looks like cafe.
workers hairnet). Can reproduce asexually by budding or sexually with sperm and egg (some have seperate sexes while some are hermaphrodite. See life cycle of jellyfish on page 722.
Some Cnidarians are bioluminescent ( can make light). There are three types of Coral reefs:
1. Barrier Reef - far out from the shore of coast, usually not visible from beach.
2. Fringing Reef - near shore, forms safe area to swim off coast.
3. Atoll Reef - forms in warm tropical areas, circular, with lagoon in center, forms island cluster.
Corals can be easily damaged or killed by a simple touch due to the oils on your hands.
Corals only grow 2 mm per year so it would take about 10 years to grow one inch.
5/15 & 16/04 Only two weeks till SUMMER !!
Discuss invertebrate animals : Ch. 26 and Ch. 27
Roundworms, Segmented worms, Mollusk, watch computervideo on invertebrates, take notes.
Phylum Platyhelminthes: Class Cestoda - tapeworm (parasitic worms)
(flatworms) Class Trematoda - flukes (Chinese Liver Fluke, Schistosoma) (parasitic worms)
Class Turbellaria - planaria (free living worms)
Characteristics: Multicellular, Eukaryotic, Heterotrophic, Acoelomates ( no body cavity),
size 1 mm to several meters, 14,500 different species, live in marine, freshwater, moist land and in organisms as parasites. First animals to have ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm.
Planaria are free living and feed on dead material, they have a complex digestive system with a mouth,
pharynx (muscular organ to push food down), digestive tract (intestine)...no anus.
Planaria have a nervous system with a simple brain (ganglia), 2 nerve cords and lateral nerves.
They have eyespots that detect light and dark. THEY HAVE CEPHALIZATION (concentration of
sensory nerves in the head region of the body). Reproduction in Planaria: most flatworms are
hermaphrodites. They can exchange sperm to egg with internal fertilization. Also can reproduce asexually
by regeneration ( growing missing parts ). Head of a tapeworm is called a scolex, it has four suckers and
a crown of hooks called a rostellum. These structures help the tapeworm anchor itself to the wall of the
intestine. Tapeworms grow at their neck regions, forming new proglottids. These proglottids are primarily
for reproduction.
Phylum Nematoda: (roundworms) 12,000 different species, found in soil, fresh & salt water. Include both freeliving and parasitic forms. Many are parasites to man, such as ( hookworms, pin worms, Ascaris worms, heartworms, trichinella). These are the first animals to develop an anus structure allowing for a one way digestive system. They are pseudocoelomates, meaning they have a false body cavity, one that is only partically lined with mesoderm. Hookworms can enter your body through bare skin, travel through your blood vessels to your lungs where they crawl up the trachea and are then swallowed down the esophagus to the stomach, then to the intestines where they attach and feed and reproduce. Pinworms are the most common parasitic roundworm in the U.S.. The adult female comes out the anus at night and lays her eggs around the anal opening. Trichinella is a worm you get from eating undercooked pork. This worm is embedded in the meat of a pig and when you eat the meat you can release the worm which then will embed in your muscle tissue. Nematodes cause many plant diseases and cause millions of dollars in crop damages every year.
Phylum Annelida: (segmented worms): Class Polychaetea (marine worms) ex. nereis
Class Oligochaetea (terestrial worms) ex. earthworm
Class Hirudinea ex. leeches
These worms are multicellular, eukaryotic, have body systems, first to have a heart structure, they have a body cavity which makes them eucoelomates, are segmented on the outside and inside, have a distinct
anterior and posterior end, most are free living/some are parasitic, most live in marine environments.
Most have tiny bristles called setae which aid in movement. They have a nervous system with a brain and nerve cord. The largest is the Giant Australian Earthworm which can grow to a length of nine feet. They have a circulatory system which is equiped with a heart or in the case of earthworms five hearts. The earthworm digestive system has a gizzard for grinding food and a crop for storing food with a long intestine for absorption of nutrients. The inside of the body is divided by a septum, which is like a curtain of tissue between each segment. Nephridia are like our kidneys, they filter liquid waste from the earthworms body, and the waste is removed from the body by nephridiapores (like our urethra).
Leeches have 34 segments, their crop has been expanded to hold large amounts of blood that they suck out of usually warm blooded mammals. Leeches have been used for medical purposes for thousands of years and are still used today for some medical needs.
5/18/04: Phylum Mollusca: (soft bodied animals)
Class Pelecypoda (bivalvia - two shelled animals): clams, oysters, scallops
Class Gastropoda (univalvia - one shelled animals): snails, slugs, whelks, conch
Class Cephalopoda (headfooted animals): octopus, squid, nautilus
Most are slow moving, body systems are more complex, have all major body systems, have coelomate body cavity, soft body structure, most have shells, live in freshwater/saltwater/land, economically important group for food. Shells are made of calcium carbonate, shell is secreted by the mantle. Mollusk have bilaterial symmetry, mouth and anus. Many have a radula, which is a tongue with bony plates on it so the can grind food off surfaces. Move by using a muscular foot. Most are seperate sexes and reproduce by sexual means. The fastest Mollusk are the Cephalopods, move by jet propulsion, large brains with large eyes. Cephalopods are the largest of the Mollusk, with the Giant Squid leading the pack.
Bilateral Symmetry with segmentation reduced.
Body covered with a thin membrane called the mantle. This structure may secrete the shell.
Three body parts: head, muscular foot, and the visceral hump ( contains the internal organs).
Gas exchange occurs through the gills or the lining of the mantle cavity.
Nitrogenous wastes are excreted through nephridia.
Open circulatory system. Does not contain many blood vessels.
Reproduction sexual with the development of the trochophore larvae.
There are 4 classes of mollusks: Amphineura, Bivalvia, Gastropoda, and Cephalopoda.
True coelomates. Its body cavity is completely lined with mesoderm.
Protostomes. The mouth develops first in the embryo.
Class Amphineura: Marine organisms containing a shell of 8 plates. They contain a muscular foot for locomotion. Their head is reduced. There are about 650 species of these organisms containing the Chiton. They cling to rocks in the inter tidal zone and use a tooth like radula to scrape food off of the rocks. They breathe through gills.
Class Gastropoda: This is the largest molluscan class. Snails and slugs are the most familiar forms of this class. They are characterized by a single shell. This shell has a characteristic cone shape. The oldest part of the shell is its tip. They breathe through gills or the mantle cavity acts as a primitive lung. Their muscular foot extends along the ventral surface of the organism. Their head contain a pair of antennae and a pair of eyes. They contain a scrapping radula to pick up food from the environment. The slug does not contain a shell and its usually becomes active during the cool moist part of the day.
Class Bivalvia: This class contains animals covered with 2 shells. The clam and the oysters are the most evident examples of this class. These organisms are mainly marine living in the inter tidal zone . The body has a large visceral hump and a muscular foot with a reduced head. The Visceral hump and foot are covered with the thin mantle. The mantle produces a cavity where the gills and 2 siphons ( the ecxurrent and incurrent siphons) are found. The animals are filter feeders. They take water containing food into the mantle cavity and pass it over the mouth. The excess water is forced out through the excurrent siphon. The shell contains 3 layers: the outer horny layer, inner prismatic layer, and the inner pearly layer. Pearls are sometimes produced when an irritation enters the mantle cavity and covered by the pearly layer secreted by the mantle. The oldest part of the shell is the area surrounding the hinge, called the umbo.
Class Cephalopoda: Squids, octopuses, cuttlefish, and Nautiluses are examples of this class. All members of this class are marine. Squid and octopuses are among some of the most intelligent of the invertebrates. All cephalopods are carnivorous. They contain tentacles and a central mouth containing a sharp beak. Many of these organisms contain a large ink sac that is used when trying to escape from potential predators. They have well developed eyes and brains. They contain special pigment cells called chromatophores which enable them to change color. They have gills in the mantle cavity. Their circulatory system is a closed one.
Phylum Arthropoda
General Characteristics.
Arthropods contain jointed appendages that are modified in different species to carry out certain functions.
The exoskeleton is made of a mucopolysaccharide called chitin. As the animal grows it must get rid of the exoskeleton ( molting ) before a new one can form.
Arthropods contain well developed sense organs. Compound eyes, sensory antennae, and tympanic membranes keep most arthropods in communication with their environment.
An open circulatory system is found in all arthropods. The hemolymph (blood) is propelled through the body by a tubular heart and collected in areas called sinuses. These are very few blood vessels in the arthropods.
They contain a variety of respiratory organs such as book lungs, trachea, spiracles and gills.
They contain bilateral symmetry.
Most all arthropods reproduce sexually. Some species of insects are parthenogenetic. The female organism , under certain circumstances , can produce fertile offspring without mating. A complex developmental process is common in insects. This process is called metamorphosis.
They contain a ventral nerve cord and a brain.
Excretory organs vary from green glands to Malpighian tubules.
The digestive system is complex and very efficient.
They are protostomes and coelomates.
The phylum contain the most known species than all the other phyla combined.
Classes of Arthropods:
Crustacea. Lobsters, crayfish, crabs, and shrimp belong to this arthropod class. These organisms contain two body parts the cephalothorax and abdomen. Two compound eyes and two pairs of antennae. They contain appendages modified for grabbing and feeding. Their excretory organ consists of a sac-like green gland. Their gas exchange is through gills. Many species contain 5 pair of walking legs. The circulatory system is open. Barnacles are sessile crustaceans that have a modified exoskeleton in the form of a shell.
Insecta. This class contains the most prolific group of animals that has ever populated the earth. The exist in almost every environment known to man. Their ability to fly and live off of plants and flowers has given them this success. Insects contain three body parts: head, thorax, and abdomen. They contain one pair of antennae, a pair of compound eyes, and various modified mouth parts. The thorax contains the six legs and two pair of wings. They contain a well developed digestive system, and a ventral nerve cord. Their circulatory system is open and it contains a dorsal heart. They contain a tracheal respiratory system and excrete their liquid waste through Malpighian tubules. Many species young undergo complete, incomplete or gradual metamorphosis.
Arachnida. Spiders, ticks, mites, and scorpions contain simple eyes, two body parts the cephalothorax and the abdomen. They contain 4 pair of walking legs attached to the cephalothorax. Many breathe through book lungs. Many of these organisms are poisonous and parasitic.
Chilopoda and Diplopoda. These classes contain the centipede and millipede. Centipedes contain one pair of walking legs per segment and are carnivorous. The millipedes contain 2 pairs of walking legs per segment and are vegetarians.
Phylum Echinodermata
General Characteristics:
Most echinoderms are sessile or sedentary marine forms with radial symmetry as adults. Their larvae contain bilateral symmetry.
A thin skin is a covering for a hard calcium plate-like exoskeleton.
Most contain bumps and spines which serve various functions.
They contain a water vascular system. This system is a network of hydraulic canals which branch into extensions called tube feet. These tube feet function in movement, feeding and respiration.
These organisms are true coelomates.
Simple nervous system with no brain
No specialized excretory organs.
They are deuterstomes. The digestive tract begins with the anus first.
They contain separate sexes and carry out external fertilization.
There are six classes of echinoderms ( Asteroidea - sea stars ) is the most common.
Class Asteroidia:
This class contain sea stars which have 5 or more arms extending from acentral disc.
The tube feet on the under surface of the arms are swollen when fluid is pushed into them. Suction cups at the end of each tube foot attaches to the ground while the muscles contract to shorten the foot. coordination of extension, attaching, contraction and release allow slow movement and attachment to prey.
These organisms eat by attaching their tube feet to the shells of the clam and wrap around it,holding it tightly. The clam's muscles fatigue allowing the shell to be pulled open. The sea star everts its stomach into the clam and secrete digestive juices onto its soft tissues.
Sea stars have a limited ability to regenerate. A single arm cannot regenerate an entire body.
Class Ophiuroidea:
Brittle stars differ from the sea stars in many ways. They also typically have five arms, but these arms are slender and distinctly set off from the central disc.
The tube feet have no suckers, and are of limited use in locomotion; the brittle stars use their entire arms to aid in movement.
They do not have an anus: indigestible material is expelled from the mouth.
Example: Brittle stars
Class Echinoidea:
Echinoids have a compact body encased in test, or shell. The dermal ossicles, which are modified to be close-fitting plates, make up the test.
Echinoids lack arms, but their pentaradial structure is evident in the arrangement of the ambulacral areas, appearing as grooves on the test that run from the mouth to the aboral side, ending at the area around the anus.
"Regular" sea urchins are the familiar hemispherical shape with medium to long spines.
They move by means of their tube feet, with some assistance from their spines. "Irregular" urchins, the sand dollars, have become secondarily bilateral: their spines are usually very short and their bodies are more flattened than those of regular urchins.
They move chiefly by their spines.
Examples: Sea urchins, sand dollars
Class Holothuroidea :
Sea cucumbers are greatly elongated along the oral-aboral axis compared to the other echinoderms, and the ossicles are much reduced in most, so the animals are soft-bodied.
They too have become secondarily bilateral, though in a different way from the irregular urchins: their tube feet are well developed along only one ambulacral groove.
Example: Sea cucumbers
Class Crinoidea:
In crinoids, the body disc has a leathery skin containing calcareous plates.
Five flexible arms branch to form many more arms, each with many lateral pinnules arranged like barbs on a feather.
Their ambulacral grooves are open and ciliated, and serve to catch small organisms and carry them to the mouth.
Examples: Sea lilies and feather stars
Phylum Echinodermata
General Characteristics:
Most echinoderms are sessile or sedentary marine forms with radial symmetry as adults. Their larvae contain bilateral symmetry.
A thin skin is a covering for a hard calcium plate-like exoskeleton.
Most contain bumps and spines which serve various functions.
They contain a water vascular system. This system is a network of hydraulic canals which branch into extensions called tube feet. These tube feet function in movement, feeding and respiration.
These organisms are true coelomates.
Simple nervous system with no brain
No specialized excretory organs.
They are deuterstomes. The digestive tract begins with the anus first.
They contain separate sexes and carry out external fertilization.
There are six classes of echinoderms ( Asteroidea - sea stars ) is the most common.
Class Asteroidia:
This class contain sea stars which have 5 or more arms extending from acentral disc.
The tube feet on the under surface of the arms are swollen when fluid is pushed into them. Suction cups at the end of each tube foot attaches to the ground while the muscles contract to shorten the foot. coordination of extension, attaching, contraction and release allow slow movement and attachment to prey.
These organisms eat by attaching their tube feet to the shells of the clam and wrap around it,holding it tightly. The clam's muscles fatigue allowing the shell to be pulled open. The sea star everts its stomach into the clam and secrete digestive juices onto its soft tissues.
Sea stars have a limited ability to regenerate. A single arm cannot regenerate an entire body.
Class Ophiuroidea:
Brittle stars differ from the sea stars in many ways. They also typically have five arms, but these arms are slender and distinctly set off from the central disc.
The tube feet have no suckers, and are of limited use in locomotion; the brittle stars use their entire arms to aid in movement.
They do not have an anus: indigestible material is expelled from the mouth.
Example: Brittle stars
Class Echinoidea:
Echinoids have a compact body encased in test, or shell. The dermal ossicles, which are modified to be close-fitting plates, make up the test.
Echinoids lack arms, but their pentaradial structure is evident in the arrangement of the ambulacral areas, appearing as grooves on the test that run from the mouth to the aboral side, ending at the area around the anus.
"Regular" sea urchins are the familiar hemispherical shape with medium to long spines.
They move by means of their tube feet, with some assistance from their spines. "Irregular" urchins, the sand dollars, have become secondarily bilateral: their spines are usually very short and their bodies are more flattened than those of regular urchins.
They move chiefly by their spines.
Examples: Sea urchins, sand dollars
Class Holothuroidea :
Sea cucumbers are greatly elongated along the oral-aboral axis compared to the other echinoderms, and the ossicles are much reduced in most, so the animals are soft-bodied.
They too have become secondarily bilateral, though in a different way from the irregular urchins: their tube feet are well developed along only one ambulacral groove.
Example: Sea cucumbers
Class Crinoidea:
In crinoids, the body disc has a leathery skin containing calcareous plates.
Five flexible arms branch to form many more arms, each with many lateral pinnules arranged like barbs on a feather.
Their ambulacral grooves are open and ciliated, and serve to catch small organisms and carry them to the mouth.
Examples: Sea lilies and feather stars
7 Vertebrate Classes
Class Main Characteristics Examples
Agnatha Jawless, cartilagenous skeleton, notocord present, lacks paires appendages, 2 chambered heart
Lamprey and Hagfish
Chondrichthyes Cartilagenous skeleton, jaws,paired appendages, gills, no operculum, no swim bladder, internal fertilization, placoid scales, 2 chambered heart.
Sharks, skates, rays, chimearas
Osteichthyes Bony skeleton, jaws, external fertilization, swim bladder, operculum, ctenoid scales, 2 chambered heart.
Bass, trout, perch, tuna
Amphibia Appendages adapted for land use,tadpole stage, respiration through lung/skin, smooth moist skin, 3 chambered heart.
Salamanders, newts, frogs, toads
Reptilia Scaly skin, respiration via lungs, lay amniotic egg Partially divided septum.
Snakes, lizards, turtles, crocodiles
Aves Feathers, forelimbs modified as wings, respiration though lungs, endothermic, 4 chambered heart, amniotic egg.
Owls, sparrow, penguins, eagles
Mammalia young nourished by mammary glands, diaphragm, 4 chambered heart, hair, endothermic, viviparous
Monotremes, marsupials, and
Phylum Chordata
Chordate Characteristics:
Notochord. All chordate embryos have a notochord, which is a longitudinal, flexible rod of cartilage located between the gut and the dorsal nerve cord. The notochord may persist into adulthood in some chordates, but in many it is replaced by the vertebral column. The spongy material in between the vertebral bones is all that is left of the notochord.
Dorsal Hollow Nerve Cord. The nerve cord of a chordate embryo is formed from a plate of dorsal ectoderm that rolls up into a tube. It is located dorsal to the notochord. This nerve cord is unique due to its hollow structure. It will develop into the chordate's central nervous system .
Pharyngeal Gill slits. These structures are openings of the upper digestive tube in chordates. The pharynx is the area just behind the mouth. During the embryonic stage of the chordates these slits connect the outside to the pharynx. Early chordates used them as devices for filter feeding. As time progressed the slits became modified to function in gas exchange.
Post anal Tail. Most chordates have a tail extending beyond the anus. In many aquatic species the tail is equipped with skeletal and muscular tissue for movement.
Subphyla of Chordata:
Subphylum Cephalochordata. These invertebrate chordates contain all 4 phylum characteristics in their adult body. The lancelet Brachiostoma is the characteristic organism of this group. The animal wiggles into the sand , leaving its anterior end exposed. It pulls in water through its mouth and traps the food on the mucus of its pharyngeal gill slits. It has limited movement, using a (~) sinusoidal pattern.
Subphylum Urochordata. The common organisms are called tunicates. Most are sessile marine organisms. The organism has a body plan similar to that of a clam. Water is drawn into the body through an incurrent siphon; food particles are filtered out through the mucus covered gill slits. The food then moves into the intestine and the waste material is then passed out through the excurrent siphon. The adults lose 3 of the chordate characteristics as adults: Notochord, nerve chord , and tail.
Subphylum Vertebrata.
Cephalization, development of highly specialized sensory structures and a highly specialized brain.
Vertebral column, The axial skeleton ( skull, ribs, and vertebra ) and the appendicular skeleton ( arms and legs, or wings, or flippers ) is an internal living system.
Closed circulatory system. It is a closed system. The heart is composed of a collecting chamber(s) and a pumping chamber(s). The cells of the body exchange food and gases through tiny blood vessels called capillaries.
The kidney is the main excretory organ.
Sexes are separate. Fertilization may be internal or external depending on the species.
Respiratory organs include the gills, lungs, or highly vascularized skin. Oxygen is carried to all parts of the body in a liquid called blood. Hemoglobin is the main attractant of oxygen and is found in the red blood cells.
Class Agnatha: (Lamprey and Hagfish)
General Characteristics:
Absence of jaws.
These organisms lack the paired fins (pelvic and pectoral).
Skeleton made of cartilage.
Round eel-like body with a compressed caudal fin.
Soft skin devoid of scales.
They lack a swim bladder and gill covers (operculum).
7 gill slits on each side of the head.
The lamprey are parasitic and the hagfish are scavengers.
Ectothermic ( animals that cannot control their body temperature).
External fertilization. Oviparous ( egg laying)
Marine and fresh water species are found.
Lateral line
Two chambered heart
Gills used for respiration
No external ears
No eye lids
Class Chondrichthyes: ( Sharks, Rays, and Skates).
General Characteristics:
Skeleton made of cartilage.
Body covered with triangular Placoid scales.
Ventral,subterminal mouth with several rows of triangular teeth.
Large caudal fin with the dorsal section larger than the ventral one.
Paired fins ( pectoral and pelvic), are stiff and nonflexable.
They lack a swim bladder.
Ectothermic
Internal fertilization. Ovoviviparous ( developing egg kept inside the female for protection and does not live off of the parent).
Marine organisms only.
Lateral line
Two chambered heart
Gills used for respiration
No external ears
No eye lids
Class Osteichthyes: ( Tuna, Carp, Salmon, and Sturgeons).
General Characteristics:
Skeleton made of bone
Lateral line
Two chambered heart
Operculum covering the gills.
Swim bladder
Ectothermic
Paired fins made of rays and spines,or lobed fins lacking the rays and spines.
Various types of scales (ctenoid,ganoid, or cycloid).
Marine and fresh water species.
Gills used for respiration
External fertilization. Spawning. Oviparous.
No external ears
No eye lids.
Amphibians
Class Amphibia:
Amphibians have smooth moist skin. The toad is an exception with rough dry skin.
The majority of amphibians contain four limbs with no claws on their digits (toes).
They contain a three chambered heart. Two atria and one ventricle. There is a possibility of the oxygenated and unoxygenated blood mixing in the ventricle.
They are ectotherms. During extreme environmental conditions they either hibernate (winter) or aestivate (summer).
They carry on external fertilization. Their offspring develop through a process called metamorphosis. Tadpoles (aquatic larvae) resemble fish. Over a period of time they change in form into the adult amphibian.
They respire through poorly developed lungs and moist skin.
They contain a well developed muscular system.
The digestive system is adapted to digest whole prey, swallowed by the organism.
Two kidney's rid the body of nitrogenous waste. The amphibian liver carries on several functions: detoxifying poisons, producing bile, and storing glucose in the form of glycogen.
The cloaca is a sac that collects discharge from the large intestine, urinary bladder, and gonads before it is eliminated from the body.
Their brain is well developed and is attached to a dorsal nerve cord.
Most amphibians contain three eye lids. Two are normal and one is transparent.
These are the first animals to possess a pressure releasing canal called the Eustachian tube. The tube connects the mouth cavity with the tympanic membrane.
Orders of Amphibia:
Order Apoda. This order contains amphibians without legs. Examples of this order are the caecilians. Most of these organisms live in the moist soil, while some tropical species live in ponds and streams.
Order Urodela. These are tailed amphibians. Included in this group are the salamanders and newts. These animals contain a tail and neck. Some of these organisms never develop lungs and must rely on external gills.
Order Anura. Frogs and toads represent these tailless organisms. Frogs use powerful hind legs for movement. Their long sticky tongue is attached to the tip of the lower jaw. They exhibit a variety of colorful skin, which is sometimes poisonous. Frogs live in many areas of the world. The male is the only one of the species that makes sounds.
Tadpole and Adult Comparison
Characteristics Adult Frog Tadpole
Type of limbs legs fins
Heart chambers 3/ 2
Type of food Carnivorous Vegetarian
Respiratory structure Lungs and Skin Gills
Reptiles
Reptilian Characteristics:
The development of the amniote egg. Reptiles are considered the first true land animals. It was this egg that allowed the reptiles to conquer the land and begin a reign that lasted hundreds of millions of years. The amniote egg is a water proof structure composed of a shell, embryonic membranes, and the living embryo. Starting after the shell, the first extraembryonic membrane is the chorion. The chorion aids in the exchange of gases between the environment and the embryo. The allantois is a sac-like structure that grows out of the digestive tract of the embryo. It functions in gas exchange and collects metabolic wastes from the embryo. The third membrane is a fluid filled sac called the amnion. It surrounds the embryo and the fluid it secretes cushions the embryo. The fourth and final membrane is the yolk sac. The sac contains the food for the embryo.
A thick dry skin covered with scales made of a protein called Keratin. Reptiles molt as they grow.
Reproduction is sexual with internal fertilization. Most are oviparous, while some snakes and lizards are either ovoviviparous or viviparous.
Respiration occurs through well developed lungs, and in some turtles a moist cloacal surface.
Reptiles are ectotherms. Being ectothermic enables an organism to survive on much less food than an endothermic organism.
Most reptiles contain a 3 chambered heart with a partially divided ventricle. Crocodiles contain a 4 chambered heart.
Reptilian Orders.
Order Chelonia. Turtles are members of this order. They developed from animals called anapsids during the Mesozoic era. They show very little change from their ancestral form. They contain 2 shells. The top shell is called the carapace, while the lower shell is called the plastron. Both shells are colored to help the turtle blend in with the 2 environments in which it lives. All turtles lay their eggs on land. Turtles do not contain teeth, but use a horny beak to grab and tear food. Turtles contain three eyelids.
Order Squamata. Lizards and snakes belong to this reptilian order. Lizards are the most abundant of this order. They evolved from the diapsid group of primitive organisms. They range in size from the large Komodo Dragon to the small tropical geckos. Snakes are probably the most interesting species of this group. They probably developed from small burrowing lizards. They are void of legs, eyelids, and ears. They are carnivores swallowing their prey whole. Their glottis and gullet are at separate ends of the mouth cavity. This allows the snake to breathe when eating. They contain 2 rows of teeth on the upper jaw and one row on the lower. The teeth are curved and pointed back toward the gullet. This keeps the food moving in one direction toward the stomach. The jaws are hinged in such a way as to separate allowing the mouth to open wider than usual when swallowing large prey. Some species are venomous, either giving off a hemotoxin ( blood poison) or a neurotoxin ( nerve poison). The tongue is used in the sense of smell. Heat sensitive pits are a feature of some venomous snakes, these allows the snake to home in on the prey's body heat.
Order Crocodilia. Crocodiles evolved from the diapsid lineage. These organism are found in most of the warm regions of the world. They spend most of their time in the water. They contain a 4 chambered heart and are the closest living relative of the dinosaur.
Class Aves
General Characteristics:
Birds are flight orientated organisms. Each part of its anatomy is modified in some way to allow it to keep its body light and energetic for flight.
Very active metabolism. They can eat, digest, and eliminate the waste in a short amount of time. Their body temperature is rather high 102-103 degrees F. They are endotherms.
They contain a four chambered heart.
Their skeleton is constructed of light weight bones supported by an inner meshwork of bony material to give extra support while flying.
The female loses one of its ovaries.
They have no teeth and their beak is made of a light protein keratin.
They contain feathers, also made of keratin. There are three types of feathers: down feathers which are used for insulation, contour feathers which are colorful and used for recognition, and keeping the body aerodynamic, and quill feathers which are used for flight . These feathers are lost periodically (molting).
They have an extensive air sac system attached to the lungs. This reduces the weight of the bird and supplies the needed air for a fast metabolism. It also is used to dissipate the tremendous amount of heat built up from metabolism.
They develop from the amniote egg. Bird egg shells are hardened with calcium carbonate for added protection.
Birds that are ready to carry on life's duties upon hatching are called precotial, while those that need further development are called altricial.
They have a well developed nervous system. Acute vision, and external ears.
Well developed muscles. The keel ,a part of the sternum, allows large pectoral muscles to be attached to the skeleton.
Their forelimbs are modifies as wings. These wings are homologous to the limbs of the reptiles, amphibians, and mammals.
Their hind limbs are modified for various jobs based on the structure of their claws.
Birds are an excellent indicator of the fitness of the environment. They help keep the insect population down, use rodents as a food source, help rid the environment of dead and decaying organic material, and help pollinate many types of plants.
Many birds migrate over long distances to find suitable breeding grounds and protection from major climatic changes.
Class Mammalia
General Mammalian Characteristics:
Possess hair which is made of keratin. The evolution of mammalian keratin is believed to be independent of reptilian keratin. Hair provides insulation .
Endothermic. The majority of the heat energy is used to maintain their high body temperature.
4 chambered heart.
Mammary glands are used to produce milk to nourish their young. Female glands are the only functional glands.
The diaphragm is a muscle that separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity.
7 cervical vertebrae (neck bones) are present in most mammals.
Most are viviparous though some are oviparous. An extended gestation period (uterine development) is common in most placental mammals.
Teeth are imbedded in the jaw bone and come in a variety of forms.
Well developed brain.
Mammals developed from the therapsid ancestors during the Triassic period.
Major Groups of Mammals:
Monotremes. Characterized by the duckbilled platypus and the spiny anteaters, lay eggs and maintain some reptilian characteristics. They do not contain true mammary glands, but produce a fatty sweat (milk) from glands in the skin. The milk collects and drips down tufts of hair into the offspring's mouth. They are found in Australia and New Guinea.
Marsupials. These mammals contain a pouch (marsupium). Opossums,koalas,kangaroos, and other examples live in Australia as a result of the break up of the super continent Pangea. The young are born during the early stages of development. The new born crawls up to the mother's pouch, where it clings on to a nipple and hangs there until it fully develops.
Placental Mammals. These mammals are the most abundant and diverse of the class. The placenta, a reproductive structure, is housed in the uterus of the female. Here the offspring receives all that it needs to develop into a fully developed organism. This period of development (gestation) varies with the species of mammal. Whales gestate for 2 years, while a mouse develops in 21 days.
Chart of Placental Mammals
Order Characteristics Examples
Carnivora: Eats meat, all teeth are pointed................cats and dogs , seals, walrus, weasels, and martins
Chiroptera: wings used for flight, diet includes insects and vegetation..............bats
Primates: opposable thumb, plantigrade foot, usually one offspring at birth.
............................................................................. man , apes, monkeys,tarsiers,and lemurs
Edentata: lacking teeth, large claws for digging ......... sloths, armadillos, South American anteater
Rodentia: 2 incisors on both jaws, diastema between incisors and premolars .
............................................................................rats, mice, squirrels, beavers, gophers, and capybara
Lagmorpha: 4 incisor teeth, canine teeth lacking, short stubby tails ...................rabbits, hares,pikas
Cetacea flippers, opening on top of head dolphins,whales,porpoises
Proboscidea: Great size,nose and upper lip form proboscis, upper incisors are tusks,thick skin,scant hair ................................................................................elephant
Sirenia: Herbivorous, aquatic, no external ears, flippers, no hind appendages..... Manatees and dugongs
Perissodactyla: Odd-toed,hoofed forms,gall bladder lacking, herbivorous ....horses, donkeys,zebras,tapirs
Artiodactyla: Even-toed, hoofed forms, herbivorous, true horns or antlers present ...............................................................................Cattle,pigs,camels,deer,hippopotami
5/20 & 21/04: PIG DISSECTION MAJOR GRADE
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